Q.1. Discus about the generation of computers along with its advantage and disadvantages. (AKTU. 2011 - 12)
Related Questions -
Q. Write short note on classification of computers. (AKTU. 2013 - 14)
Ans. Generation of Computers: -
The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of computing devices. A generation refers to the state of improvement in the product development process. This term is also used in the different advancements of new computer technology. With each new generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced than the previous generation before it. As a result of the miniaturization, speed, power, and computer memory has proportionally increased. New discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we live, work and play.
First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes: -
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. A magnetic drum,also referred to as drum, is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and programs can be stored. Magnetic drums were once used as a primary storage device but have since been implemented as auxiliary storage devices.
They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Machine languages are the only languages understood by computers. While easily understood by computers, machine languages are almost impossible for humans to use because they consist entirely of numbers. Computer Programmers, therefore, use either high level programming languages or an assembly language programming. An assembly language contains the same instructions as a machine language, but the instructions and variables have names instead of being just numbers.
Programs written in high level programming languages retranslated into assembly language or machine language by a compiler. Assembly language program retranslated into machine language by a program called an assembler (assembly language compiler).
Every CPU has its own unique machine language. Programs must be rewritten or recompiled, therefore, to run on different types of computers. Input was based onpunch card and paper tapes, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
Acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer, the world’s first operational electronic digital computer, developed by Army Ordnance to compute World War II ballistic firing tables. The ENIAC, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes,1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors,capacitors, and inductors, was completed in 1945. In addition to ballistics, the ENIAC’s field of application included weather prediction, atomic-energy calculations, cosmic-ray studies, thermal ignition,random-number studies, wind-tunnel design, and other scientific uses. The ENIAC soon became obsolete as the need arose for faster computing speeds.
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors: -
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation computer. Transistor is a device composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or closes a circuit. Invented in 1947 at Bell Labs, transistors have become the key ingredient of all digital circuits, including computers. Today’s latest microprocessor contains tens of millions of microscopic transistors.
Prior to the invention of transistors, digital circuits were composed of vacuum tubes, which had many disadvantages. They were much larger, required more energy, dissipated more heat, and were more prone to failures. It’s safe to say that without the invention of transistors, computing as we know it today would not be possible.
The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube,allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper,more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages,which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.
Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits: -
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
A nonmetallic chemical element in the carbon family of elements. Silicon - atomic symbol “Si” - is the second most abundant element in the earth’s crust, surpassed only by oxygen. Silicon does not occur uncombined in nature. Sand and almost all rocks contain silicon combined with oxygen, forming silica. When silicon combines with other elements, such as iron, aluminum or potassium, a silicate is formed. Compounds of silicon also occur in the atmosphere, natural waters,many plants and in the bodies of some animals.
Silicon is the basic material used to make computer chips, transistors, silicon diodes and other electronic circuits and switching devices because its atomic structure makes the element an ideal semiconductor. Silicon is commonly doped, or mixed,with other elements, such as boron, phosphorous and arsenic, to alter its conductive properties.
A chip is a small piece of semi conducting material(usually silicon) on which an integrated circuit is embedded. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inches and can contain millions of electronic components(transistors).
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors: -
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits we rebuilt onto a single silicon chip. A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers,the terms microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and most workstations sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.
Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:
Instruction Set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute. Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction. Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can execute.
In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bitmicroprocessor that runs at 25MHz.
What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.
Abbreviation of central processing unit, and pronounced as separate letters. The CPU is the brains of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the processor or central processor, the CPU is where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power,the CPU is the most important element of a computer system. On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip called a microprocessor.
Two typical components of a CPU are: The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations.
· The control unit, which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUI’s, the mouse and handheld devices.
Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence: -
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like humans. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Artificial intelligence includes:
· Games Playing: programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers
· Expert Systems: programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations (for example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms)
· Natural Language: programming computers to understand natural human languages.
· Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the types of physical connections that occur in animal brains
· Robotics: programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli.
Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate human behavior). The greatest advances have occurred in the field of games playing. The best computer chess programs are now capable of beating humans. In May,1997, an IBM super-computer called Deep Blue defeated world chess champion Gary Kasparov in a chess match.
In the early 1980s, expert systems were believed to represent the future of artificial intelligence and of computers in general. To date, however, they have not lived up to expectations. Many expert systems help human experts in such fields as medicine and engineering, but they are very expensive to produce and are helpful only in special situations.
Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural networks, which are proving successful in an umber of disciplines such as voice recognition and natural-language processing.
There are several programming languages that are known as AI languages because they are used almost exclusively for AI applications. The two most common are LISP and Prolog.
Q.2 What is an operating system. Explain in detail.
Related Questions-
Q. Discuss the Operating system and its functions. (AKTU. 2012 - 13)
Q. Define operating system. Describe the various functions of operating system. Also discuss various types of the operating system. (AKTU. 2013-14)
Ans. Operating System: -
An operating system is a program that always runs on our computer.
Description of an operating system: -
For a computer to be able to operate a computer program (sometimes also known as the application software) the machine must be able to perform a certain number of preparatory operations to ensure the exchange between the processor, the memory and physical resources and peripherals.
The operating system (some times referred to as OS) is responsible for creating a link between the material resources (monitor, keyboard, CPU etc.) the user and the applications (word, processor, video games etc).
When a program wants to access a material resource, it need to send specific information to the operating system which convey it to the relevant peripherals via its drivers.
If there are no drivers, each program has to take into account the communication with each type of peripheral.
The operating system thus allows the seperation of programs and hardware mainly to simplify resource management and offer the user a simplified man machine interface (MMI) to overcome the complexity of the actual machine.
Component of operating system: -
Operating system comprises a set of large number of programs that can be used to manage interactions with the hardware. The following elements are generally included in this set of the software.
1. The kernel: -
(i) It represents the operating system basic functions such as management of processes.
(ii) Memory. (iii) Files. (iv) Main input and output (v) Other communication functionalities.
2. The shell: -
(i) It allows communication with the operating system via a control language.
(ii) It Enables the user to control the peripherals without knowing the characters of the hardware used.
(iii) It manages physical addresses etc.
3. The file system: -
(i) It allows the files to be recorded in a tree structure.
(ii) Enables user to create, read, write, sort, maintain and interpret a file.
Operating System (Unix, Linux, Windows): -
There are several types of operating system defined according to
whether they can simultaneously manage information measuring 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits or more.
The following table give a brief introduction to some most commonly used operating system –
Related Questions-
Q. Discuss the Operating system and its functions. (AKTU. 2012 - 13)
Q. Define operating system. Describe the various functions of operating system. Also discuss various types of the operating system. (AKTU. 2013-14)
Ans. Operating System: -
An operating system is a program that always runs on our computer.
Description of an operating system: -
For a computer to be able to operate a computer program (sometimes also known as the application software) the machine must be able to perform a certain number of preparatory operations to ensure the exchange between the processor, the memory and physical resources and peripherals.
The operating system (some times referred to as OS) is responsible for creating a link between the material resources (monitor, keyboard, CPU etc.) the user and the applications (word, processor, video games etc).
When a program wants to access a material resource, it need to send specific information to the operating system which convey it to the relevant peripherals via its drivers.
If there are no drivers, each program has to take into account the communication with each type of peripheral.
The operating system thus allows the seperation of programs and hardware mainly to simplify resource management and offer the user a simplified man machine interface (MMI) to overcome the complexity of the actual machine.
Component of operating system: -
Operating system comprises a set of large number of programs that can be used to manage interactions with the hardware. The following elements are generally included in this set of the software.
1. The kernel: -
(i) It represents the operating system basic functions such as management of processes.
(ii) Memory. (iii) Files. (iv) Main input and output (v) Other communication functionalities.
2. The shell: -
(i) It allows communication with the operating system via a control language.
(ii) It Enables the user to control the peripherals without knowing the characters of the hardware used.
(iii) It manages physical addresses etc.
3. The file system: -
(i) It allows the files to be recorded in a tree structure.
(ii) Enables user to create, read, write, sort, maintain and interpret a file.
Operating System (Unix, Linux, Windows): -
There are several types of operating system defined according to
whether they can simultaneously manage information measuring 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits or more.
The following table give a brief introduction to some most commonly used operating system –
