Q.18. Write short note on Forced choice system. (AKTU. 2012 - 13)
Ans. One of the most popular methods for obtaining appraisals of performance is through the technique known as “forced choice”. This rating method, which was an outgrowth of the usual problems encountered in the development of personality measurement instruments, was quickly adapted for use in performance appraisal.
Construction of forced-choice rating scale: Guilford has outlined very clearly the appropriate steps to be followed in developing a forced choice instrument - so clearly that they are worth reiterating here. He suggests the following eight steps -
1. Descriptions are obtained concerning persons who are recognized as being at the highest and lowest extremes of the performance continuum for the particular group to be rated.
2. Descriptions are analyzed into simple behaviour qualities, stated in very short sentences or phrases or by trait names, which may be called elements are used to construct items.
3. Two values are determined empirically for each element: a discrimination value and a preference value. The discrimination value is an index of validity, and the preference value is an index of the degree to which the quality is valued by people like the raters who will use the instrument.
4. In forming an item, elements are paired. Two statements or terms with about the same high preference value are paired, one of which is valid and the other not. Both should have “face validity” for the rater, i.e. the rater should think that they are both favourable for superior performance in the group rated.
5. Two pairs of statements, one pair with high preference value and one with low preference value, are combined in the tetrad to form an item. The reason for this kind of combination is that although the average rater will not object to picking one of two favorable descriptions for a person whom he knows, he sometimes balks at picking one of two unfavorable descriptions. Sometimes a fifth, neutral, description is added to form a pentad, but this is less common.
6. The instruction to the rater is prepared. The rater is to react to each tetrad as an item, saying which one of the four best fits the ratee and which one of the four is least appropriate.
7. An experimental form of the instrument is tried out in a sample for which there is an outside criterian, for the purpose of validating the responses when the descriptions are set up in this form. Discriminating responses are determined, and, if desired, differential weights are assigned.
8. A scoring key is devised, based on the result in step 7. Ordinarily, a valid favorable trait marked as most descriptive of the ratee receives a positive weight, also a valid, unfavorable trait judged as least descriptive.
Q.19. Write short note on Complexity of motivation. (AKTU. 2012 - 13)
Ans. The one thing that psychologists know is that an individual rarely if ever behaves or responds in a situation as a result of a single motive. They clearly recognize the complexity of human behaviour and understand that a person often does not know the true reason for his behaviour. Because of this complex behaviour, an individual is in many instances, unpredictable.
When the psychologist talks about motivation, he is concerned with studying the individual with respect to ever-changing physiological conditions and a multitude of previous experiences. Because of these two factors, physiological changes and previous experiences. It must be recognized that motivation may stem from within an individual or from factors acting on him from the outside. Furthermore, these two categories are not mutually independent; on the contrary, they interact at all times. In the integration of the behaviour of any normal individual at any one moment many motives are present.
Motivation is truly complex. Different forms of behaviour are sometimes similarly motivated. A desire to be outsanding or to acquire prestige may cause one person to write a book; another may decide to achieve this by dressing effectively, another by marrying well and still another by remaining single.
All these different froms of behaviour may lead to the same amount of success by achieving the same end. The converse is also true. Different motives may sometimes result in one form of behaviour. Thus a person may write a book because he wants to acquire wealth or gain prestige or have an opportunity for self-expression or creativeness.
The vocabulary of motivation is large. Such terms as motive, purpose, desire, goal, preference, perception, attitude, and incentive all have their place. Regardless of the individual word applied at any given moment, a person is likely to have a number of motives, drives, incentives, desires, wishes, and purposes operating at the same time.
Q.20. Write short note on trait approach for the study of leadership. (AKTU. 2012 - 13)
Ans. Trait Approach: -
Most of the early leadership research has been of the trait approach type. The philosophy of the trait approach is quite simple and would seem, at least initially, quite logical. Successful leaders are assumed to possess more (or less) of certain traits than are unsuccessful leaders. This is the notion of the ideal leader or the ideal leader profile which describes which traits a good leader should posess a lot of and which traits he should possess in only minimum amounts. The emphasis in this approach is on the personal characteristics of good and bad leaders. It says that the best way to investigate leadership is to look at good and bad leaders and see how they differ in terms of their traits. The usual method followed in such studies is to:
1. Identify a group of “good” leaders and a corresponding group of poor or “bad” leaders.
2. Measure these leaders on a variety of personality traits and individual characteristics.
3. Determine if the good leaders possess a significantly different amount of any trait or characteristic than do the poor leaders. If so, this trait is defined as a critical leadership trait.
4. Cross-validate results in steps 1-3 on a new sample of leaders (this step is often omitted in spite of the fact it is the most critical of all).