Q.25. What is Urbanization? (AKTU. 2014 - 15)
Ans. Urbanization is the movement of population from rural to urban areas and the resulting increasing proportion of a population that resides in urban rather than rural places. It is derived from the Latin 'Urbs' a term used by the Romans to a city. Urban sociology is the sociology of urban living; of people in groups and social relationship in urban social circumstances and situation. Thompson Warren has defined it as the movement of people from communities concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture to other communities generally larger whose activities are primarily centered in government, trade, manufacture or allied interests. Urbanization is a two-way process because it involves not only movement from village to cities and change from agricultural occupation to business, trade, service and profession but it also involves change in the migrants attitudes, beliefs, values and behavior patterns. The process of urbanization is rapid all over the world. The facilities like education, healthcare system, employment avenues, civic facilities and social welfare are reasons attracting people to urban areas. The census of India defines some criteria for urbanization. These are:
- Population is more than 5000
- The density is over 400 persons per sq.km
- 75% of the male population engages in non-agricultural occupations.
- Cities are urban areas with population more than one lakh.
- Metropolises are cities with population of more than one million.
Q.26 Explain the role of Hawthorne experiments in the development of industrial sociology. (AKTU. 2014 - 15)
Ans. Hawthrone Experiments: -
The Hawthrone experiments were conducted (1927 - 32) at the Western Electric Hawthrone Works in Illinois, US. In this research, also reffered to as the Hawthrone-Harvard studies, Professor Eltone Mayo and his associates at the Harvard University examined the impact of work conditions on employee productivity. They first studied the physical and environmental influences of the workplace (e.g. brightness of lights, humidity); and later moved onto the psychological aspects (e.g. breaks, group pressure, work hours, managerial leadership) and their impact on employee motivation as it applies to productivity. These studies represent the pioneering attempts made towards a systematic and intensive study of the human factor and to demonstrate the utmost complexity in work setting where people intract in small groups under varied organizational conditions. Fritz and William Dickson first published the comprehensive findings of the Hawthorne experiments in managment and the worker (1939); their reports and interpretations can be compared with those of Elton Mayo and Thomas Whitehead.
The broad segments of the Hawthorne segments are discussed below:
(i) Illumination expreiments (1924 - 27): The Hawthorne studies were aimed at studying, among other aspects or workplace conditions, the effect of changed illumination at work. While the illumination remained unchanged for a particular group of employees throughout the experiments, the illumination was enhanced in intensity for the other experimental group. Meanwhile the productivity in the experimental group showed an improvement; yet, strangely, the output of the other group also went up. Researchers then proceeded to decrease the illumination for the expreimental group as well. The output went up. Everybody recognised there was something much more important than wages, work-hours and work-condition, which influenced productivity. It was inferred that the close interest shown by investigators in the workers, the effective pattern of communication which thus developed, and the emerging high social cohesion within the group brought together the needs of the group rewarding interaction and cooperation with the output needs of the management.
(b) Relay Room Experiments: -
In 1927, the Department of Industrial Research at the Harvard University, a group to which Mayo had been recruited, was called in. Their enquiry started in the Relay Assembly Test Room where, over five-year period, a wide range of changes were made in the working conditions of a specially segregated group of six women job was to assemble telephone relays. Changes made involve incentive scheme, rest pauses, work hours and refreshments; yet, it was found that the output increased - notwithstanding any and all the changes, including returning to the original working conditions. The explanation that emerged later was labelled as the ‘Hawthrone effect’. Taking a cube form the illumination experiments, the researchers continued taking two girls for this experiments. They were then asked to choose four girls to make a small group of six. This group was engaged to assemble telephone relays. The experiments began with numerous changes, each of which continued for a test period ranging from 4 to 12 weeks. Under normal working conditions, with a 48 hour week and not rest pauses, each girl produced 2400 relays per week. Then, for eight weeks, these girls were made to work on the basis of piece-rate plan; and the productivity increased. Next, two five minutes rest pauses were introduced and later increased to 10 minutes. Productivity increased sharply. When the company provided hot meals free of charge, the productivity increased even further. After all these amenities were withdrawn and the girls returned to their normal working conditions, working 48 hours per week and no free meals, the productivity was still the highest. The productivity increased because of girls attitude towards their work; the group had developed a sense of responsibility and self-discipline.
(c) Mica splitting test room experiments: -
In this study, although the isolated test room conditions of the original relay study were reproduced, the workers were engaged under their normal individual piece-rate plan rather than small group incentive schemes employed in the relay room experiments. As a result, the productivity increased 15 percent during the period of 14 months.
(d) Mass interviewing Programme: -
Another major aspect of the Hawthrone studies consisted of 21,000 interviews carried out during 1928 to 1930. The original objective was to explore information, which could be used to improve supervisory training. Initially these interviews were conducted by means of direct questioning, but this method had the disadvantage of a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response. Thus, the method was changed to non-directive interviewing where the interviewer was to listen instead of talk, argue or advice, and take on the role of confidant. The employee interviewing programme was seen as showing how many problems of the management-worker relationship could be put down to the failure to recognise the emotions and the ‘sentiments’ of the employees.
(e) Bank Wiring Room Study: -
The cheif objective was to conduct an observational analysis of the work group. In this experiment, 14 men were chosen for bank wiring (the process where two loose wire-ends were soldered). In that, 9 were wirement, 3 solder man, and 2 inspectors. The job involved attaching wires to switches for certain parts of telephone equipment. The study involved no experimental changes once it had started; it was carried out by 2 persons - an observer and an interviewer. The later remained an outsider and his task was explore as much possible by interviewing the individual worker. He carried his work in strict confidence, privately and in different part of the company. He never entered the wiring room. The result of the bank wiring room study - which are marked opposite to those obtained by the relay room experiment - revealed that this small group of workers emerged as a team with informal leaders who had emerged spontaneously. The group was indifferent towards the financial incentives of the factory. The output was neither more nor less. This implies that it would be irrational to break up these groups. The bank wiring observation room was considered to show the part played by informal social group needs in worker restriction of output.
